Tetanus Shot: effects.side effects and reaction to booster dose given during pregnancy.
Tetanus shot... continue
How to Stop His and Her Thumb Sucking
Stop Thumb Sucking
Thumb sucking is a way for children to ease anxiety. However, as your child gets older, you may want to stop his or her thumb sucking. Actually, it would be a better idea to stop thumb sucking early on because it makes for bucked (or protruding teeth). Pediatricians claim that thumb sucking does not occur in societies other than Western society where mothers tend to hold their babies for prolonged periods of time. In Western societies children are weaned from their parents at an early age and become anxious. Whatever you do, don’t try to force your child to stop. They may not be ready. Don’t yell at your child. Instead, talk it out with one of your friends. ... continue
Swedish covenant hospital: Introduction to its Histroy, staff and speciality offered
Swedish covenant hospitalThe Swedish covenant hospital was set up in the 1880 by the Swedish Evangelical covenant mission, it was set up initially on the foster and California avenues in Chicago, and was called the Home of mercy, it was rendered functional on 1st of aprill 1886. Records show that the hospital it self was described as an establishment having 12 iron beds, a bookcase , a sofa and a swing table with six chairs. By the year 1890 almost a 128 patients were served at the hospital and it eventually began to expand. By the year 1903 it was turned it a full fledged 40 bed facility. Over the years the hospital has undergone numerous renovations and expansions , but as its motto goes the science of feeling better it is committed to the health care needs of the community and the best possible environment for the healing of patients that enter it. The hospital today has grown many fold from the 12 bed establishment it use to be, under the auspices of the evangelical covenant church. The hospital caters to the health and medical needs of north and northwest sides of the Chicago’s community. The hospital has a staff of almost 2200 out of which 550 physicians, nurses and other health care professionals to keep its reputation in providing top of the line health care robust. It also happens to be one of the few independent teaching hospitals in the area. The hospitals policies are patient centric and there are many facilities that the patients and there family might avail at the institution. Other touches include an international patients menu which has been setup to cater to the palates of foreign nationals seeking cure at Swedish covenant. Other efforts such as the introduction of aromatherapy and warm blankets are to name a few examples of how the hospital is unique in its approach. Apart from all this the goal of the hospital is to provide the best possible health care through its staff of highly experienced and professional staff, the latest diagnostic and therapeuticall technologies available and an extremely strenuous and professional medical residency programs which ensures the training of the best specialists. The Swedish covenant is also a leader in its research programs and has a numerous research initiatives and studies going on all the time. Some of the key areas of specialized treatment offered at the hospital include cardiology, surgery, pediatrics, gynecology, emergency medicine, family medicine, rehabilitation medicine and geriatrics.Established over 120 years ago today the Swedish covenant hospital is the city of Chicagos only planetree member. This is an organization that develops and implements guidelines for patient care in various departments. The significance of the organization is such, that out of all 5000 hospitals in America only about a 125 have fully committed to the planetree philosophy of treating the mind body and soul of a patient. Some of the hospitals other achievements include; Hospital of Choice Award, 2005 and 2006 from the American alliance of health care providers.... continue
Lymphoma Treatment: Hodgkins and non Hodgkins cancer
Non Hodgkins Lymphoma Treatment: Those who are affected by Non Hodgkins Lymphoma have several different lymphoma treatment options. Depending on what the prognosis is, the lymphoma treatment will be decided for each individual patient. There are many different types of non Hodgkins lymphoma, including follicular lymphoma, and the doctor will need to evaluate the patient’s individual needs. Radiation therapy is one treatment that can be used. Radiation therapy is used to actually kill the cancer cells. It can also shrink tumors, and is known to be an effective and aggressive non Hodgkins lymphoma treatment. Chemotherapy is another treatment of choice. With this type of treatment, medication is used to kill the cancer cells. Immunotherapy uses the immune system of the patient in order to fight the cancer. In some cases, a bone marrow and peripheral blood transplant will be ordered for the patient. In each case, the doctor will monitor the progress of the patient and make adjustments in the lymphoma treatment as needed. As non Hodgkins lymphoma becomes more commonplace those who enter into lymphoma treatment have a better prognosis. Doctors are finding ways to treat the disease more effectively than ever before.
Hodgkins Lymphoma Treatment: When someone has Hodgkins Lymphoma, they will also have to go through Lymphoma treatment. Again, depending on what the prognosis is, the doctor will decide the treatment that is best for the patient. The prognosis is important as it will show what the expectations are for the patient, along with how aggressive the treatment needs to be. Chemotherapy and radiation are both options when someone needs lymphoma treatment for Hodgkins. Some doctors recommend using a bone marrow and peripheral blood transplant. Recently, immunotherapy has been added to the available treatments. Monoclonal antibody therapy is the newest immunotherapy being used, and it is speculated that soon vaccine therapy will be an alternative lymphoma treatment. These new treatments have brought a great deal of excitement to the medical community, as they offer new ways to treat the cancer.
Lymphoma Treatment and Cancer: Often people lump all cancer and lymphoma treatments together, but in reality, lymphoma is only one part of the cancer family. Lymphoma attacks the lymph nodes, where cancer can take over any part of the body. That is why lymphoma treatment is not always the same as the treatment selected for other parts of the body. The doctor has to look at the available lymphoma treatments and make a decision on what is best for the patient. Depending on the type of lymphoma the patient has, the doctor will be able to choose a treatment that is best for the patient.
Lymphoma Treatment and Hodgkins: Those who have Hodgkins and go through lymphoma treatment typically end up with a good prognosis. Most people who have Hodgkins are cured of the disease. Hodgkins is able to be caught early in most cases, which makes the lymphoma treatment more successful. Many people who seek lymphoma treatment for Hodgkins are in the first two stages of the cancer.... continue
The lateral meniscus: tear and treatment
The lateral meniscus: The lateral meniscus is also known as the external semilunar fibrocartilage.; A meniscus is an interarticlular fibrocartilage of crescent shape, found in certain joints, specially the lateral and the medial menisci or also known as the semilunar cartilages of the knee. This is generally found as an fibrocartilaginous band that spans the lateral side of the interior knee joint. This is prone to injury, and the type of injury inflicted upon the lateral meniscus include those caused by vigorous twisting which in turn tears it, by the application of direct force. These kind of injuries are frequent in full contact sports, a torn lateral meniscus can also sometimes be found in skiers. The anatomy of the lateral meniscus is as follows; it is grooved on the lateral side. This groove serves as hook for the popliteus tendon, which seperates it from the fibular collateral ligament. The anterior end of the lateral meniscus is attached in front of the intercondyloid process or eminence of the tibia bone. This is directly lateral to and posterior to the anterior cruciate ligament of the knee with which it blends. The posterior ends of the meniscus are attached to the intercondyloid process and directly in front of the posterior part of the medial meniscus of the knee. The anterior attachments of the meniscus are in amatter of speaking almost twisted upon themselves giving the meniscus free extremities which are oriented backwards and upwards. The anterior end is resting on sloping bone directly in front of the lateral part of the intercondyloid eminence of the tibia. Along the posterior attachments of the meniscus it is the site for the emergence for a strong fasciculus nown as the ligament of Wrisberg. The ligament of Wrisberg passes upwards and medially to have a eventual insertion into the medial condyle of the femur bone. This attachment to make things clear is immediately posterior to the posterior cruciate ligament of the knee. Sometimes small fasiculus pass forwards to be eventually inserted into the lateral part of the anterior cruciate ligament of the kee. The lateral meniscus is also the origin for fasciculus which form the transverse ligament these arise from the anterior convex margin of the lateral meniscus.Healthy functioning of the knee is directly related to the health of the lateral meniscus as it is the site of origin and insertion of numerous knee ligaments. Hence any injury to this can be excruciatingly painful and requires lengthy periods for recovery. The lateral meniscus is less prone to injury than say a torn medial meniscus. The diagnosis for a torn lateral meniscus is done using a McMurray test. If a tear or injury is detected, the treatment protocol is directly related to the type and size of the tear. Smaller tears require only conservative treatment with rest, and ice packs. Analgesic treatments may also sometimes be required until and unless the pain is brought under control. Eventually after a period of rest physiotherapy is required and one can be in physicallt fit shape in 3 to 4 weeks. In severe injuries however surgical intervention is required and even excision is done arthroscopically to correct the problem.... continue
Drug counselor
Drug counselors or substance abuse counselors as they are also known have an incredible demanding job. There job is sort of a non profit community service that is inclined towards the betterment of addicts.
Drug counselors need a host of qualities firstly they should be empathetic towards there patients problems as well as being abundantly patient. An addict to any sort of substance generally requires help in various facets of his or her life. These people are also unaware and in certain conditions even in denial of there condition, and most often than not do not even know if they are eligible or for that matter how to find appropriate help for an effective drug rehab treatment. A drug counselors job begins by firstly diagnosing them with a specific addiction and then refers them to a variety of services and places that will provide a stable atmosphere for them to combat this addiction.... continue
Ovarian tumor: signs and symptoms
Ovarian tumorOvarian cancer is the second most commonly diagnosed gynaecologic malignancy, the deadliest gynaecologic malignancy, and the fourth leading cause of cancer-related deaths in women in the United States of America, and most of the developed world. About 1 in 70 women eventually develop ovarian cancer, and 1 in a 100 women die of it. Ovarian cancer affects predominantly premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Hence a greater awareness and understanding of ovarian cancer is extremely important and well merited, as is an increased engagement of the medical community in further research into its treatment, So as to prolong the life expectancy and quality of the women suffering from this disease.Epithelial cancer of the ovary is one of the main causes of death from any gynaecological malignancies in the western world. The disease accounts for about more than 5% of all cancer deaths among women, more dying from this than the combined deaths of both cervical and endometrial cancer.The age specific incidence of the common epithelial type of ovarian cancer increases progressively and peaking the eighth decade. Epithelial tumors, unlike germ cell and stromal tumors are uncommon before the age of 40. Epidemiological studies suggest higher incidences in industrialized nations and an association with disordered ovarian functioning i.e. infertility, null parity, frequent miscarriages, and the use of ovulation inducting drugs such as clomiphene. Each pregnancy reduces the ovarian cancer risk by about 10%, and breast feeding and tubal ligation also appears to reduce the risk. Oral contraceptives reduce the risk of ovarian cancer in patients with a family history of cancers and in the general population. Many of these risk reduction factors support the incessant ovulation hypothesis for ovarian cancer aetiology, which implies that an aberrant repair of the surface epithelium is central to ovarian cancer development. Estrogens replacement after menopause does not appear to increase the risk of ovarian cancer. The common epithelial tumors account for 60% of all ovarian neoplasm’s and for 80% to 90% of ovarian malignancies. The remaining tumors arise from ovarian germ cells or stromal cells. The epithelial tumors arise from the surface epithelium or serosa of the ovary. It is thought that germ cell tumors originate in cells derived from the primitive streak that ultimately migrated to the gonads. The mesenchyma gives rise to the ovarian stroma, and stromal tumors arise from this original cell type. Abdominal discomfort and bloating are the most common symptoms experienced by women with epithelial ovarian cancers, followed by vaginal bleeding, gastrointestinal symptoms, and urinary tract symptoms. The most common physical signs are ascites and a pelvic mass. The mass is frequently firm, hard, and fixed with multiple nodularities palpable in the cul-de-sac. Level of the cancer antigen 125 (CA 125) tumor biomarker is elevated in more than 80% of serous epithelial ovarian cancers, but it can also be elevated in a variety of benign conditions and other nongynecologic malignancies. Furthermore, in early-stage ovarian cancers, CA 125 level is elevated in less than half of cases. Preoperatively, tumor marker levels are useful in predicting the potential for malignancy. During treatment for ovarian cancer, CA 125 level is a very useful barometer of disease activity and can be used to follow response to therapy and to detect an early recurrence.... continue
Tumor symptoms: a complete report on symptoms of various tumors
Tumor symptomsThe important warning signals of cancer and tumors are; unusual bleeding form any internal or external body site. A lump or thickening in any area of the body , a sore or wound that does not heal , a change in bowel or bladder habits, hoarsness, persistent cough, indigestion or difficulty in swallowing, change in the size or shape or characteristic of a wart or a mole, unexplained weight loss or brisk weight gain. These are some of the major signs of cancer and once any of these is observed it should be brought to prompt attention of the general practitioner. Exhaustive tests should be conducted there after to rule out any malignancy or benign tumor.Gastrointestinal signs of tumor; Because of the vague, nonspecific symptoms that characterize gastric cancer, most patients are diagnosed with advanced-stage disease. Patients may have a combination of signs and symptoms such as weight loss, anorexia, fatigue, or epigastric discomfort, none of which unequivocally indicates gastric cancer. Weight loss is a common symptom, and its clinical significance should not be underestimated. In some patients, symptoms may suggest the presence of a lesion at a specific location. A history of dysphagia may indicate the presence of a tumor in the cardia with extension through the gastroesophageal junction. Early satiety is an infrequent symptom of gastric cancer but is indicative of a diffusely infiltrative tumor that has resulted in loss of distensibility of the gastric wall. Persistent vomiting is consistent with an antral carcinoma obstructing the pylorus. Significant gastrointestinal bleeding is uncommon with gastric cancer; however, hematemesis does occur in approximately 10% to 15% of patients. Ascites, jaundice, or a palpable mass indicates extensive and incurable disease. Signs and symptoms at presentation are often related to spread of disease. Because the transverse colon is held in proximity to the stomach by the gastrocolic ligament, the transverse colon is a potential site of malignant fistulization and obstruction from a gastric primary tumor. Diffuse peritoneal spread of disease frequently produces other sites of intestinal obstruction. A large ovarian mass (Krukenberg’s tumor) or a large peritoneal implant in the pelvis (Blumer’s shelf), which can produce symptoms of rectal obstruction, may be felt on pelvic or rectal examination. Nodular metastases in the subcutaneous tissue around the umbilicus or in peripheral lymph nodes represent areas in which a tissue diagnosis can be established with minimal morbidity.Neurologic signs and symptoms of head tumor; Intracranial tumors produce two kinds of symptoms: general symptoms related to intracranial pressure (ICP) and local symptoms that are specific to the tumor’s location. Essentially all brain tumors can produce headache. The brain itself is not pain sensitive, and tumor headache is thought to arise from the dura and intracranial vessels. Meningiomas and other slow-growing tumors may grow remarkably large without producing headache, whereas more rapidly growing tumors can cause headache early in their course. Other mechanisms through which small tumors can cause headache include growth within an enclosed space, such as the cavernous sinus, or obstructive hydrocephalus, in which the ventricles rather than the tumor are the bulk of the extra mass. Nausea and vomiting, personality changes, and slowing of psychomotor function or even somnolence may be present with increased ICP.... continue
The Human Male Reproductive System
The Female Reproductive System
Although the function of the female reproduction system is the same as that of the male reproductive system, to produce life, they are made up of entirely different organs. The female reproductive organs are entirely inside the woman’s body, while the male reproductive system is located inside and outside the human body. The male reproductive system is called genitals.
The Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system includes the testicles, the duct system, the accessory glands which include seminal vesicles and prostate glands and the penis. When boys reach sexual maturity, the two testes (also called testicles) produce and store millions of sperm cells. In addition, the testicles are part of the endocrine system as they produce hormones, especially testosterone. Testosterone is what makes men, men. Testosterone is responsible for male facial hair, muscle growth, deepening of the voice and other male characteristics. During puberty, the testicles produce a lot of testosterone. With the onset of raging hormones comes the desire to have sex. This is where it is important to educate adolescents about sexually transmitted diseases. ... continue
Shoulder tendonitis: signs, symptoms and treatment
Shoulder tendonitisTendinitis is the inflammation of the tendon and the sheath surrounding the tendon. The synovial sheath surrounding the tendon is the site for maximal inflammation. The cause of this disorder is generally unknown but is seen in middle aged to older people as there vascular condition of the tendon itself deteriorates over time. Repeated trauma to the area along with accentuated exercise may also precipitate the condition. Most common sites affected are the rotator cuff, the achilles tendon, patellar tendon as well as the knee, and the elbow.Shoulder tendinitis or rotator cuff tendinits , swimmers shoulder, tennis shoulder or shoulder impigment syndrome is it is also known. The rotator cuff (supraspinatus, infraspinatus, subscapularis teres minor) holds the humeral head in the glenoid fossa of the scapula. Tearing and inflammation of these tendons and muscles usually occur in sports requiring the arm to be moved regularly over ones head for eg in baseball, swimming, cricket, backstroke, butterfly stroke, weightlifting, certain racket sports , and atheletics such as javelin throw and pole vault. Reaching forward causes the humeral head of the anteriorly flexed shoulder to aut the acromion and coracoacrominal ligament, which in turn is rubbed by the tendon of the supraspinatus. Chronic irritation can cause subacromial bursitis, inflammation and erosion of the tendons. Acute excessive force can eventually tear the rotator cuff. If exercise continues bdespie the pain , the lesion eventually progresses to periostitisand then to avulsion of the tendons from there attachment on the humeral tuberosities.Symptoms and signs; initially pain occurs only in sports which require the arm to be held over the head and forcibly brought forward,. Later pain may occur while moving the arm forwards to shake someones and. Usually pain is also elicited while pushing things away, with little or no pain while pulling things or objects in . to palpate the rotator cuff, abduct the arm backward and away from the body in internal rotation with elbow held straight. The patient may complain of tenderness over the tendons,especially when the arm is raised above the shoulder but often not while the arm is held down by the side. Severe pain is caused by the adduction of te arm across the chest. Humeral abduction is weak, usually because of an underuse atrophy of the deltoid. An MRI cannot usually detect the partial tear of a rotator cuff but can demonstrate a complete tear.Treatment; the injured tendons should be rested and the uninjured shoulder muscles strengthened. The patient should avoid pushing movements and instead should perform pulling movements, provided there is no further pain. Surgery may be found to be necessary in certain cases which are particularly severe, if there is a complete tear of the rotator cuff, or if the tendons do not eventually heal within 6 months. Localized NSAID treatment for 7 to 10 days is usually sufficient but sometimes injections and symptomatic treatment maybe required every 2 or 3 weeks for 1 to 2 months.... continue
Don’t Let This Happen To You! Hair Loss and Iron Deficiency: The Symptom and Treatment
Iron Deficiency Anemia: The Cause Iron deficiency anemia is a disorder wherein the blood lacks sufficient red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen to tissue in the body. Your blood then gives your body energy and a healthy glow. Many people who are iron deficient look pale and sickly. This blood disorder is due to lack of iron in the diet. Hemoglobin is made of iron. Without iron, hemoglobin, found in red blood cells, cannot enable the cells to carry oxygen throughout the body. Studies show that women consistently are more susceptible to iron deficiency anemia, especially pubescent girls and pregnant women. The reason pubescent girls tend to be susceptible to iron deficiency anemia is because when they menstruate, they lose blood and the iron needs to be replaced. A study conducted by Dr. Michael Sharon, author of Nutrients A-Z noted that during a woman’s menstrual cycle, she can easily lose 10-15mg of iron. His study also revealed that women in pregnancy tend to lose 600-1000 mg. That’s a lot of iron. ... continue
... Pituitary Disorder and Gland: symptom
Pituitary Disorder and Gland: The pituitary gland produces several different hormones, and when the gland is not functioning correctly one can end up with a pituitary disorder. When someone has a pituitary disorder, the pituitary gland either over produces or under produces hormones. The body needs a regulation of hormones in order to function properly. When the balance of hormones is not correct, problems will occur. The body will do battle with itself as it tries to regulate the hormones, and this will cause a great deal of stress on the body of the person. One will feel out of sorts when they are suffering from a pituitary disorder, and they will also have other symptoms. The symptoms must be explored so those who are suffering from the disorder can seek treatment.
Pituitary Disorder Symptom: When someone suffers from a pituitary disorder, they often identify it because they display a symptom that is unique to the disorder. There are many different symptoms for pituitary disorder. Adults can end up with decreased muscle mass, low libido, poor appetite and fatigue. Children that have pituitary disorder may display the symptom of delayed growth. Those who suffer from the disorder can end up with one system of pituitary disorder, or they can end up with several symptoms. Thus, those who only display one symptom should still see a doctor as they could have the disorder.
Pituitary Disorder and Gland Hormone Deficiencies: As you know, a pituitary disorder occurs when the pituitary gland is not working properly. That is because there are deficiencies with certain hormones. The imbalance of those hormones causes a pituitary disorder. The first hormone is the growth hormone. It actually helps with brain development, and is very important. The next hormones are the luteinizing hormones and the follicle stimulating hormones. These hormones are directly related to the sex drive of individuals. Prolactin is needed for breast milk to be secreted and the thyroid stimulating hormone is related directly to the thyroid, which means too much of it will make someone be too energetic and thin, and not enough will make them sluggish and also cause them to gain weight. The ATCH hormone helps with the response to stress, and vasopressin keeps the electrolyte balance in the body.
Pituitary Disorder and Symptom Realization: once someone realizes they have a symptom of a pituitary disorder, it is essential they go to a doctor. A doctor can put them on medication for their disorder, which will allow the gland to get back into balance. This will help them live a healthy and happy life. Symptoms should never be ignored. A pituitary disorder will not go away on its own, and in most cases, it will get much worse if it goes untreated. Therefore, one should always discuss their symptoms with a doctor so the doctor can decide on a course of treatment. One does not have to be certain they have the disorder before they go to a doctor. They can go to the doctor, have tests run, and then let the doctor discover if they have the disorder or not.
... continueLateral thigh trainer-a complete info of this workout model
Lateral thigh trainer There are number of exercise devices available in the market which promise you those dream thighs. There are also number of other infomercials, and products marketed through telemarketing promising the very same thing, but at the end of the day these are all expensive and cumbersome equipments that take up space and offer little in the form of results. It is evident that most of these devices would probably work and do probably work but not in the promised time frame as seen on television or advertised on the net. These thigh trainers are usually steppers that incorporate tension through hydraulics to give you legs the best possible work out but the problem with most of them is that they are too unidirectional and do not in fact target all muscle groups to give you the optimal workout.The new lateral thigh trainer is unlike any you might have used before. It manages to rectify the problems of all the old thigh trainers and gives you a unique bi-directional siting lie motion that targets multiple muscle groups of the legs from different angles. This unique action of the thigh trainer is only possible through its double action resistance disk which helps you do efficient cardiovascular exercise, for you over all health and well being. Apart from this it is a great way to burn those excess calories and tone up your body in little time. Remember it is not a miracle worker and results well be evident eventually, you need to be patient and deligent as with any other exercise machine, just that this does it better. The unique design of the trainer which not only moves up and down, but also from side to side, gives you in fact two potent workouts. The lateral thigh trainer has a built in personal training computer which easily tracks your progress and work out. The lateral thigh trainer has a sturdy steel built which apart from being of adjustable resistance also gives comfort and stability. The double action resistance disk gives the user a smooth ride that is very easy on knees and joints. You can easily workout various muscles groups such as the hips, thighs, abs and the buttocks in one easy motion, this means double the workout in half the time. This means an all in one deal giving you a quick workout which fulfills your cardiovascular needs as well as burning up those excess calories and keeping you slim and in sexy shape. The lateral thigh trainer has seven resistance levels and you can customize your workout with less resistance for fat burning and cardio or more resistance for muscle toning and workout.Apart from this the lateral thigh worker also comes with its very own instructional DVD which will guide you through the entire workout process. It is also filled with tips to maximize your workout along with detailing the different ways you can use this device for the betterment of your health and confidence.... continue
Lung Carcinoma: Abrief discussion of various types of lung carcinoma.
Lung carcinomaLung cancer is one of the commonly occurring cancers and currently is the leading contributor to the deaths related to cancers worldwide. The global rise in lung cancer incidence, together with the fact that the overall 5-year survival of patients with this disease is less than 15%, underscores the magnitude of the lung cancer epidemic. The current chapter focuses on recent developments regarding the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of non small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The vast majority of NSCLCs are caused by cigarette smoking. Cigarette smoke contains over 300 chemicals, 40 of which are known to be potent carcinogens. Of particular significance, nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridil)-1-butanone (NNK), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) such as benzo[a]pyrene induce pulmonary carcinomas in rodents that exhibit histologic and molecular genetics profiles virtually identical to those of human lung cancers. Whereas the vast majority of lung cancers are attributable to cigarette smoking, fewer than 20% of smokers develop this disease. Although these observations suggest a genetic predisposition to lung cancer, to date, the genes conferring susceptibility to this disease remain elusive.The designation non small cell carcinoma of the lung refers to a group of commonly observed pulmonary neoplasm’s that are typically associated with cigarette smoking and share the common property of not being responsive to small cell carcinoma treatment protocols. Through the 1960s, the predominant type of non small cell carcinoma was squamous cell carcinoma. Although the overall incidence of lung cancer has dramatically increased over the past 30 years, the relative incidence of squamous cell carcinoma has decreased, and adenocarcinoma has become the dominant cell type. Large cell carcinomas are composed of large cells without cytoplasmic differentiation and account for approximately 15% of all lung cancers. Squamous cell carcinoma may present clinically in the periphery of the lung as a small sub pleural nodule with the gross appearance and overall prognosis of a peripheral adenocarcinoma. However, squamous cell carcinoma typically arises in proximal segmental bronchi via progression through stages of dysplasia. In its earliest form (carcinoma in situ), malignant squamous cells spread over the bronchial surface, often involving sub mucosal glands, without invasion through the basement membrane.The signs and symptoms manifested by patients suffering from lung cancer depend on the histologic features of the tumor and the extent of loco regional invasion, as well as the location, size, and number of distant metastases. Many patients present with an asymptomatic lesion discovered incidentally on chest radiograph. Tumors arising in the larger airways may cause persistent cough, wheezing, or haemoptysis. Typically, patients with haemoptysis experience blood-streaked sputum; massive bleeding is rarely seen at presentation. Continued growth of endobronchial tumors frequently results in atelectasis with or without pneumonia and abscess. If pleural surfaces are involved, either by the primary tumor or associated infection, pleuritic pain may develop with or without detectable pleural effusion. The loss of lung function usually is associated with dyspnoea, the severity of which depends on the amount of lung involved and the patient’s underlying pulmonary reserve. Depending on its location, the primary tumor can invade the chest wall, producing either stabbing or burning radicular pain or pleural effusion.... continue
